Researchers hack computers using DRAM electrical leaks

'Rowhammering' attack exploits electrical interference to change binary values in memory

Google researchers have written the first-ever attack code that takes advantage of electrical interference between densely packed memory cells, a unique style of attack that could require changes in chip design.

The work builds on a paper published last year by Carnegie Mellon University and Intel, which found it was possible to change binary values in stored memory by repeatedly accessing nearby memory cells, a process called “bit flipping.”

DRAM memory is vulnerable to such electrical interference because the cells are so closely packed together, a result of engineers increasing a chip’s memory capacity.

 

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Chipmakers have known about electrical interference, but may have viewed it as a reliability issue rather than a security problem, wrote Mark Seaborn, a Google software engineer. Google’s work shows bit flipping can have a much larger impact.

They tested 29 x86-based laptops manufactured between 2010 and last year and found some vulnerable. All of the laptops, which were not identified by make and model, used DDR3 DRAM.

A lack of technical information makes it hard to figure out more broadly which computers would be most vulnerable, Seaborn wrote.

“We don’t know for sure how many machines are vulnerable to this attack, or how many existing vulnerable machines are fixable,” he wrote.

Using a technique nicknamed rowhammering, Google’s two exploits repeatedly accessed a row of memory cells, causing binary values in nearby ones to change from a 0 to 1 or the reverse.

Rowhammering allowed the first exploit to complete a privilege escalation attack and escape a sandbox Google has in Chrome that is supposed to limit what an application running in the browser can do. Once out of the sandbox, the code could directly access the operating system, Seaborn wrote.

The second exploit uses rowhammer-induced bit flips to gain kernel-level privileges. The bit flips were introduced in page-table entries, which map virtual memory to physical memory. The code then had read-write access to all of the computer’s physical memory, Seaborn wrote.

There are some mitigations for bit flipping in the latest DDR4 DRAM chips, which have succeeded DDR3 in many laptops and servers. But those mitigations may have been put in place just for reliability reasons, he wrote.

“History has shown that issues that are thought to be ‘only’ reliability issues often have significant security implications, and the rowhammer problem is a good example of this,” he wrote. “Many layers of software security rest on the assumption the contents of memory locations don’t change unless the locations are written to.”

 

 

Jeremy Kirk, IDG News Service 

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const flag = getCountryUnicodeFlag(program.countryCode); const countryName = getCountryName(program.countryCode); const callingCode = program.countryCallingCode || ''; // Sanitize all values to prevent XSS const sanitizedCountryCode = sanitizeHtml(program.countryCode || ''); const sanitizedCountryName = sanitizeHtml(countryName || ''); const sanitizedCallingCode = sanitizeHtml(callingCode || ''); return '' + sanitizedCountryName + ' ' + sanitizedCallingCode + ''; }).join(''); } function getCountryName(countryCode) { if (window.MC?.smsPhoneData?.smsProgramDataCountryNames && Array.isArray(window.MC.smsPhoneData.smsProgramDataCountryNames)) { for (let i = 0; i < window.MC.smsPhoneData.smsProgramDataCountryNames.length; i++) { if (window.MC.smsPhoneData.smsProgramDataCountryNames[i].code === countryCode) { return window.MC.smsPhoneData.smsProgramDataCountryNames[i].name; } } } return countryCode; } function getDefaultPlaceholder(countryCode) { if (!countryCode || typeof countryCode !== 'string') { return '+1 000 000 0000'; // Default US placeholder } var mockPlaceholders = [ { countryCode: 'US', placeholder: '+1 000 000 0000', helpText: 'Include the US country code +1 before the phone number', }, { countryCode: 'GB', placeholder: '+44 0000 000000', helpText: 'Include the GB country code +44 before the phone number', }, { countryCode: 'CA', placeholder: '+1 000 000 0000', helpText: 'Include the CA country code +1 before the phone number', }, { countryCode: 'AU', placeholder: '+61 000 000 000', helpText: 'Include the AU country code +61 before the phone number', }, { countryCode: 'DE', placeholder: '+49 000 0000000', helpText: 'Fügen Sie vor der Telefonnummer die DE-Ländervorwahl +49 ein', }, { countryCode: 'FR', placeholder: '+33 0 00 00 00 00', helpText: 'Incluez le code pays FR +33 avant le numéro de téléphone', }, { countryCode: 'ES', placeholder: '+34 000 000 000', helpText: 'Incluya el código de país ES +34 antes del número de teléfono', }, { countryCode: 'NL', placeholder: '+31 0 00000000', helpText: 'Voeg de NL-landcode +31 toe vóór het telefoonnummer', }, { countryCode: 'BE', placeholder: '+32 000 00 00 00', helpText: 'Incluez le code pays BE +32 avant le numéro de téléphone', }, { countryCode: 'CH', placeholder: '+41 00 000 00 00', helpText: 'Fügen Sie vor der Telefonnummer die CH-Ländervorwahl +41 ein', }, { countryCode: 'AT', placeholder: '+43 000 000 0000', helpText: 'Fügen Sie vor der Telefonnummer die AT-Ländervorwahl +43 ein', }, { countryCode: 'IE', placeholder: '+353 00 000 0000', helpText: 'Include the IE country code +353 before the phone number', }, { countryCode: 'IT', placeholder: '+39 000 000 0000', helpText: 'Includere il prefisso internazionale IT +39 prima del numero di telefono', }, { countryCode: 'NO', placeholder: '+47 000 00 000', helpText: 'Inkluder NO landskode +47 før telefonnummeret', }, { countryCode: 'SE', placeholder: '+46 00 000 00 00', helpText: 'Inkludera SE landskod +46 före telefonnumret', }, { countryCode: 'DK', placeholder: '+45 00 00 00 00', helpText: 'Inkluder DK landekode +45 før telefonnummeret', }, { countryCode: 'FI', placeholder: '+358 00 000 0000', helpText: 'Sisällytä FI-maakoodi +358 ennen puhelinnumeroa', }, { countryCode: 'EE', placeholder: '+372 0000 0000', helpText: 'Lisage EE riigikood +372 telefoninumbri ette', }, { countryCode: 'PL', placeholder: '+48 000 000 000', helpText: 'Podaj numer kierunkowy PL +48 przed numerem telefonu', }, { countryCode: 'SK', placeholder: '+421 000 000 000', helpText: 'Pred telefónne číslo uveďte kód krajiny SK +421', }, { countryCode: 'LV', placeholder: '+371 0000 0000', helpText: 'Iekļaujiet LV valsts kodu +371 pirms tālruņa numura', }, { countryCode: 'LT', placeholder: '+370 0000 0000', helpText: 'Įtraukite LT šalies kodą +370 prieš telefono numerį', }, { countryCode: 'GR', placeholder: '+30 000 000 0000', helpText: 'Συμπεριλάβετε τον κωδικό χώρας GR +30 πριν από τον αριθμό τηλεφώνου', }, { countryCode: 'PT', placeholder: '+351 000 000 000', helpText: 'Inclua o código de país PT +351 antes do número de telefone', }, { countryCode: 'HR', placeholder: '+385 00 000 0000', helpText: 'Uključite HR pozivni broj države +385 prije telefonskog broja', }, { countryCode: 'SI', placeholder: '+386 00 000 000', helpText: 'Vključite SI kodo države +386 pred telefonsko številko', }, { countryCode: 'IS', placeholder: '+354 000 0000', helpText: 'Láttu IS landsnúmer +354 fylgja á undan símanúmerinu', }, { countryCode: 'LU', placeholder: '+352 000 000 000', helpText: 'Incluez le code pays LU +352 avant le numéro de téléphone', }, { countryCode: 'MC', placeholder: '+377 00 00 00 00', helpText: 'Incluez le code pays MC +377 avant le numéro de téléphone', }, { countryCode: 'AD', placeholder: '+376 000 000', helpText: 'Incloeu el codi de país AD +376 abans del número de telèfon', }, { countryCode: 'JE', placeholder: '+44 0000 000000', helpText: 'Include the JE country code +44 before the phone number', }, { countryCode: 'IM', placeholder: '+44 0000 000000', helpText: 'Include the IM country code +44 before the phone number', }, { countryCode: 'GG', placeholder: '+44 0000 000000', helpText: 'Include the GG country code +44 before the phone number', }, { countryCode: 'AL', placeholder: '+355 00 000 0000', helpText: 'Përfshini kodin e vendit AL +355 para numrit të telefonit', }, { countryCode: 'SM', placeholder: '+378 0000 000000', helpText: 'Includere il prefisso internazionale SM +378 prima del numero di telefono', }, { countryCode: 'FO', placeholder: '+298 000000', helpText: 'Inkluder FO landekode +298 før telefonnummeret', }, { countryCode: 'MT', placeholder: '+356 0000 0000', helpText: 'Include the MT country code +356 before the phone number', }, { countryCode: 'LI', placeholder: '+423 000 0000', helpText: 'Fügen Sie vor der Telefonnummer die LI-Ländervorwahl +423 ein', }, { countryCode: 'GI', placeholder: '+350 000 00000', helpText: 'Include the GI country code +350 before the phone number', }, { countryCode: 'MD', placeholder: '+373 00 000 000', helpText: 'Includeți codul de țară MD +373 înaintea numărului de telefon', }, { countryCode: 'HU', placeholder: '+36 00 000 0000', helpText: 'A telefonszám előtt adja meg a HU országkódot +36', }, { countryCode: 'NZ', placeholder: '+64 00 000 0000', helpText: 'Include the NZ country code +64 before the phone number', }, { countryCode: 'ME', placeholder: '+382 00 000 000', helpText: 'Uključite ME pozivni broj države +382 prije telefonskog broja', }, ]; const selectedPlaceholder = mockPlaceholders.find(function(item) { return item && item.countryCode === countryCode; }); return selectedPlaceholder ? selectedPlaceholder.placeholder : mockPlaceholders[0].placeholder; } function updatePlaceholder(countryCode, fieldName) { if (!countryCode || !fieldName) { return; } const phoneInput = document.querySelector('#mce-' + fieldName); if (!phoneInput) { return; } const placeholder = getDefaultPlaceholder(countryCode); if (placeholder) { phoneInput.placeholder = placeholder; } } function updateCountryCodeInstruction(countryCode, fieldName) { updatePlaceholder(countryCode, fieldName); } function getDefaultHelpText(countryCode) { var mockPlaceholders = [ { countryCode: 'US', placeholder: '+1 000 000 0000', helpText: 'Include the US country code +1 before the phone number', }, { countryCode: 'GB', placeholder: '+44 0000 000000', helpText: 'Include the GB country code +44 before the phone number', }, { countryCode: 'CA', placeholder: '+1 000 000 0000', helpText: 'Include the CA country code +1 before the phone number', }, { countryCode: 'AU', placeholder: '+61 000 000 000', helpText: 'Include the AU country code +61 before the phone number', }, { countryCode: 'DE', placeholder: '+49 000 0000000', helpText: 'Fügen Sie vor der Telefonnummer die DE-Ländervorwahl +49 ein', }, { countryCode: 'FR', placeholder: '+33 0 00 00 00 00', helpText: 'Incluez le code pays FR +33 avant le numéro de téléphone', }, { countryCode: 'ES', placeholder: '+34 000 000 000', helpText: 'Incluya el código de país ES +34 antes del número de teléfono', }, { countryCode: 'NL', placeholder: '+31 0 00000000', helpText: 'Voeg de NL-landcode +31 toe vóór het telefoonnummer', }, { countryCode: 'BE', placeholder: '+32 000 00 00 00', helpText: 'Incluez le code pays BE +32 avant le numéro de téléphone', }, { countryCode: 'CH', placeholder: '+41 00 000 00 00', helpText: 'Fügen Sie vor der Telefonnummer die CH-Ländervorwahl +41 ein', }, { countryCode: 'AT', placeholder: '+43 000 000 0000', helpText: 'Fügen Sie vor der Telefonnummer die AT-Ländervorwahl +43 ein', }, { countryCode: 'IE', placeholder: '+353 00 000 0000', helpText: 'Include the IE country code +353 before the phone number', }, { countryCode: 'IT', placeholder: '+39 000 000 0000', helpText: 'Includere il prefisso internazionale IT +39 prima del numero di telefono', }, { countryCode: 'NO', placeholder: '+47 000 00 000', helpText: 'Inkluder NO landskode +47 før telefonnummeret', }, { countryCode: 'SE', placeholder: '+46 00 000 00 00', helpText: 'Inkludera SE landskod +46 före telefonnumret', }, { countryCode: 'DK', placeholder: '+45 00 00 00 00', helpText: 'Inkluder DK landekode +45 før telefonnummeret', }, { countryCode: 'FI', placeholder: '+358 00 000 0000', helpText: 'Sisällytä FI-maakoodi +358 ennen puhelinnumeroa', }, { countryCode: 'EE', placeholder: '+372 0000 0000', helpText: 'Lisage EE riigikood +372 telefoninumbri ette', }, { countryCode: 'PL', placeholder: '+48 000 000 000', helpText: 'Podaj numer kierunkowy PL +48 przed numerem telefonu', }, { countryCode: 'SK', placeholder: '+421 000 000 000', helpText: 'Pred telefónne číslo uveďte kód krajiny SK +421', }, { countryCode: 'LV', placeholder: '+371 0000 0000', helpText: 'Iekļaujiet LV valsts kodu +371 pirms tālruņa numura', }, { countryCode: 'LT', placeholder: '+370 0000 0000', helpText: 'Įtraukite LT šalies kodą +370 prieš telefono numerį', }, { countryCode: 'GR', placeholder: '+30 000 000 0000', helpText: 'Συμπεριλάβετε τον κωδικό χώρας GR +30 πριν από τον αριθμό τηλεφώνου', }, { countryCode: 'PT', placeholder: '+351 000 000 000', helpText: 'Inclua o código de país PT +351 antes do número de telefone', }, { countryCode: 'HR', placeholder: '+385 00 000 0000', helpText: 'Uključite HR pozivni broj države +385 prije telefonskog broja', }, { countryCode: 'SI', placeholder: '+386 00 000 000', helpText: 'Vključite SI kodo države +386 pred telefonsko številko', }, { countryCode: 'IS', placeholder: '+354 000 0000', helpText: 'Láttu IS landsnúmer +354 fylgja á undan símanúmerinu', }, { countryCode: 'LU', placeholder: '+352 000 000 000', helpText: 'Incluez le code pays LU +352 avant le numéro de téléphone', }, { countryCode: 'MC', placeholder: '+377 00 00 00 00', helpText: 'Incluez le code pays MC +377 avant le numéro de téléphone', }, { countryCode: 'AD', placeholder: '+376 000 000', helpText: 'Incloeu el codi de país AD +376 abans del número de telèfon', }, { countryCode: 'JE', placeholder: '+44 0000 000000', helpText: 'Include the JE country code +44 before the phone number', }, { countryCode: 'IM', placeholder: '+44 0000 000000', helpText: 'Include the IM country code +44 before the phone number', }, { countryCode: 'GG', placeholder: '+44 0000 000000', helpText: 'Include the GG country code +44 before the phone number', }, { countryCode: 'AL', placeholder: '+355 00 000 0000', helpText: 'Përfshini kodin e vendit AL +355 para numrit të telefonit', }, { countryCode: 'SM', placeholder: '+378 0000 000000', helpText: 'Includere il prefisso internazionale SM +378 prima del numero di telefono', }, { countryCode: 'FO', placeholder: '+298 000000', helpText: 'Inkluder FO landekode +298 før telefonnummeret', }, { countryCode: 'MT', placeholder: '+356 0000 0000', helpText: 'Include the MT country code +356 before the phone number', }, { countryCode: 'LI', placeholder: '+423 000 0000', helpText: 'Fügen Sie vor der Telefonnummer die LI-Ländervorwahl +423 ein', }, { countryCode: 'GI', placeholder: '+350 000 00000', helpText: 'Include the GI country code +350 before the phone number', }, { countryCode: 'MD', placeholder: '+373 00 000 000', helpText: 'Includeți codul de țară MD +373 înaintea numărului de telefon', }, { countryCode: 'HU', placeholder: '+36 00 000 0000', helpText: 'A telefonszám előtt adja meg a HU országkódot +36', }, { countryCode: 'NZ', placeholder: '+64 00 000 0000', helpText: 'Include the NZ country code +64 before the phone number', }, { countryCode: 'ME', placeholder: '+382 00 000 000', helpText: 'Uključite ME pozivni broj države +382 prije telefonskog broja', }, ]; if (!countryCode || typeof countryCode !== 'string') { return mockPlaceholders[0].helpText; } const selectedHelpText = mockPlaceholders.find(function(item) { return item && item.countryCode === countryCode; }); return selectedHelpText ? selectedHelpText.helpText : mockPlaceholders[0].helpText; } function setDefaultHelpText(countryCode) { const helpTextSpan = 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: false; var shouldAppendCountryCode = smsNotRequiredRemoveCountryCodeEnabled ? isRequired : true; var phoneInput = document.querySelector('#mce-' + fieldName); if (phoneInput && defaultProgram.countryCallingCode && shouldAppendCountryCode) { phoneInput.value = defaultProgram.countryCallingCode; } displayFlag?.addEventListener('click', function(e) { dropdown.focus(); }); dropdown?.addEventListener('change', function() { const selectedCountry = this.value; if (!selectedCountry || typeof selectedCountry !== 'string') { return; } const flagSpan = displayFlag?.querySelector('#flag-emoji-' + fieldName); if (flagSpan) { flagSpan.textContent = getCountryUnicodeFlag(selectedCountry); flagSpan.setAttribute('aria-label', sanitizeHtml(selectedCountry) + ' flag'); } const selectedProgram = window.MC?.smsPhoneData?.programs.find(function(program) { return program && program.countryCode === selectedCountry; }); var smsNotRequiredRemoveCountryCodeEnabled = true; var smsField = Object.values({"EMAIL":{"name":"EMAIL","label":"Email Address","helper_text":"","type":"email","required":true,"audience_field_name":"Email Address","merge_id":0,"help_text_enabled":false,"enabled":true,"order":0,"field_type":"merge"},"FNAME":{"name":"FNAME","label":"First Name","helper_text":"","type":"text","required":false,"audience_field_name":"First Name","enabled":false,"order":null,"field_type":"merge","merge_id":1},"MMERGE2":{"name":"MMERGE2","label":"Second Name","helper_text":"","type":"text","required":false,"audience_field_name":"Second Name","enabled":false,"order":null,"field_type":"merge","merge_id":2},"MMERGE3":{"name":"MMERGE3","label":"Company Name","helper_text":"","type":"text","required":false,"audience_field_name":"Company Name","enabled":false,"order":null,"field_type":"merge","merge_id":3},"MMERGE4":{"name":"MMERGE4","label":"Job Title","helper_text":"","type":"text","required":false,"audience_field_name":"Job Title","enabled":false,"order":null,"field_type":"merge","merge_id":4},"SIGNUP":{"name":"SIGNUP","label":"Signup form location","helper_text":"","type":"text","required":false,"audience_field_name":"Signup form location","enabled":false,"order":null,"field_type":"merge","merge_id":5},"MMERGE6":{"name":"MMERGE6","label":"Image URL","helper_text":"","type":"imageurl","required":false,"audience_field_name":"Image URL","enabled":false,"order":null,"field_type":"merge","merge_id":6}}).find(function(f) { return f.name === fieldName && f.type === 'smsphone'; }); var isRequired = smsField ? smsField.required : false; var shouldAppendCountryCode = smsNotRequiredRemoveCountryCodeEnabled ? isRequired : true; var phoneInput = document.querySelector('#mce-' + fieldName); if (phoneInput && selectedProgram.countryCallingCode && shouldAppendCountryCode) { phoneInput.value = selectedProgram.countryCallingCode; } updateSmsLegalText(selectedCountry, fieldName); updatePlaceholder(selectedCountry, fieldName); updateCountryCodeInstruction(selectedCountry, fieldName); }); } document.addEventListener('DOMContentLoaded', function() { const smsPhoneFields = document.querySelectorAll('[id^="country-select-"]'); smsPhoneFields.forEach(function(dropdown) { const fieldName = dropdown?.id.replace('country-select-', ''); initializeSmsPhoneDropdown(fieldName); }); });

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